Environmental Theories in Philosophy: Approaches to Organizing the Ecology

Philosophical-Ecological Theories: Approaches to Organizing the Environment

Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) defines ecology as referring to the scientific analysis of the interaction between animals, plants, and their inorganic environment. Ecology basically deals with the balance of nature. Since human persons are in nature, ecology also involves the study of the human persons’ role in their environment.

Philosophy of ecology deals with the rational ways of organizing environment. Let us study prominent ecological philosophies or the dominant philosophical approaches to ecology.

Human beings have the ability to organize their environment in aesthetic ways. The manners by which people choose to use, modify, and organize their natural settings affect ecology. The following are some of the philosophical-ecological theories, or philosophical approaches to ecology, through which people may organize their environment: 

a. Deep Ecology

This was proposed by Norwegian philosopher and climber Arne Næss. It advocates “biospheric egalitarianism,” the belief that all living things are alike in having value in their own right, independent of their usefulness to others. This is a radical step higher than the “shallow ecology movement” which is simply a fight against pollution and resource depletion.

The theory proposes humans to recognize nature and all living things not as means for survival, but as co-equals and “partners” in the preservation life. It deeply rejects anthropocentrism, the viewpoint that human beings are the central or most significant entities in the world, regarding them as separate from and superior to nature, as human life is held to have intrinsic value while other beings (including animals, plants, mineral resources, etc.) are resources that may reasonably be exploited for the benefit of humankind.

According to the theory, the environment is a fundamental part to our existence and that each person should develop an “ecological self.” This means the identification of the human ego with nature, through which one can enlarge the boundaries of his self beyond his skin. An ecological self is one that is mature, sensitive and caring towards the environment, and appreciative of the value of all living things that surround us.

Deep ecology pronounces that respecting and caring for our “ecological self” is also respecting and caring for the natural environment, which, according to the theory, is actually part of us and with which we have to identify. Self-realization thus includes reconnection with the natural environment as there is deep satisfaction that comes from close partnership with other forms of life in nature.

b. Feminism and Ecofeminism

It refers to the advocacy of women’s rights normally on the basis of the equality of the sexes. Feminist movements endeavor to evaluate women’s oppression, its causes and effects, and recommend strategies and directions for women’s liberation. Some feminists claim that patriarchal worldview encourages not only dominating or colonizing of women, but of nature.

Ecofeminismis a branch of feminism that examines the links between women and nature, highlighting that both suffer from their treatment by a male-dominated culture. Women and nature are seen to have integral connection, since women usually have a close association with nature in many cultures due to the nature of their traditional roles.

In some forms of feminism, male-dominated culture or patriarchy is seen as advocating not only sexism but also racism, class exploitation, and ecological destruction. Human exploitation of the environment is viewed as an expression and extension of men’s oppression of women, as nature is associated with the female.

Androcentric or patriarchal structures are said to nourish and sustain many forms of chauvinism, including, human-chauvinism, that is anthropocentrism, which is accountable for much human exploitation of, and destructiveness towards, nature.

This hierarchical mode of thinking confers superiority to the male side, but inferiority to the female side, dictating that those on the superior side are morally eligible to control and use those on the inferior side (e.g. women and nonhumans) as mere means.

Feminism thus links environmental issues with social problems about varied kinds of discrimination and exploitation. First coined by French feminist Françoise d’Eaubonnein 1974, “ecofeminism” (also called “ecological feminism”) was thus used to refer to any view that links environmental advocacy with feminist analysis.

c. Ecocritique or eco-criticism

Ecocritique or eco-criticism argues that positivistic rationality and the positivism of science not only eliminate our fear of nature, but also abolish our sense of awe and wonder towards it. Towards nature, positivism brings about disenchantment, a feeling of disappointment about someone or something one previously respected or admired.

This positivistic disenchantment of nature is said to disrupt our relationship with things in nature, advancing the view and attitude that they are nothing more than things to be studies, consumed, and dominated. For the adherents of eco-criticism, the oppression of the natural environment through science and technology results in the suppression of human’s “inner nature” such as human creativity, morality, and autonomy.

Eco-criticism proposes stopping to see nature as simply an object of consumption. It encourages directly and spontaneously acquainting oneself with nature without interventions from one’s rational faculties. Natural things, the advocates argue, are like works of art which always involve an “excess,” something more than their mere materiality and exchange value.

d. New animism and Panpsychism

Animism (especially the traditional form) is the view that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence or personalized soul, thereby perceiving all things (animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, etc.) as animated and alive. According to new animism, the replacement of this animism by a disenchanting positivism (like scientism) results in an anthropocentric viewpoint, which is responsible for much human harm towards nature.

The new animism submits that seeing the environment as if it consists of other persons might be the key for a respectful attitude to nature. If disenchantment is the cause of environmental problems and destruction, then re-enchant by subscribing to animist belief, for the new animism, can be of help to save nature.

Panpsychism, the belief that everything material, however small, has an element of individual consciousness, is a form of new animism. This kind of new animism claims that nature contains many kinds of consciousness and sentience. Among other things, it proposes that the focus in environmental management and development ought to be on “synergy” with what is already in place “rather than on demolition, replacement and disruption .

e. Social Ecology

American social theorist and political philosopher Murray Bookchin (1921–2006) formulated and developed the theory of social ecology. It is a critical social theory which intends to fuse the study of natural and social worlds as it views human persons, society, and the natural worlds as complimentary partners of evolution. Bookchin considers the “outer” physical world as representing what he calls “first nature,” from which culture or “second nature” has evolved.

Social ecology proposes ethical principles for substituting a society’s propensity for hierarchy and domination with that of democracy and freedom. Bookchin argues that human domination and destruction of nature follows from social domination between humans. He thus recommends confederation between communities of humans run by democracy, not through administrative logistics.

Bookchin believes environmental problems are products of human beings controlling nature for their personal interests and of unreasonable profit-driven capitalist society. For instance, social ecology claims that global warming and climate change occur because of people’s long history of dominating each other and abusing nature for gain and power.

The theory recommends living in harmony with their environment as abuses imposed on nature ultimately return to us and spawn more danger in human lives. Disarrays in plants or livestock, for instance, eventually generate sickness in the human body.

f. Transpersonal Ecology

It was developed by Australian philosopher and ethicist Warwick Fox (born 1954) in 1990.  Largely influenced by Arne Naess, Fox underscores the importance of experience of nature for an understanding of eco-philosophy.

To explain man’s attitude towards our environment, Fox expounds on the tripartite aspects of human self. The human self, according to transpersonal ecology, has this aspects:

(a) a desiring-impulsive self

As the term suggests, this self covets and always chooses to obtain things in a short period of time without consideration to others’ needs.

(b) a normative-judgmental self

Toeing the line, this self judges and does things in accordance with social expectations and societal norms.

(c) a rationalizing-deciding self

This rationalizing-deciding self always bases his decisions and actions based on reasons.

The theory explains that with these three aspects of human self,  a person is able to do the following:

(a) The desiring-impulsive self empowers a person to desire for maximum abuse of the natural resources in the environment. This is responsible for some people’s being more concerned with acquiring more profit out of the natural resources without being concerned about other people’s interest.

(b) The normative-judgmental self enables a person to acknowledge the presence of reality-imposed restrictions and follow some society’s moral demands. This aspect of human self is what enables some people to become prudent and frugal in utilizing natural resources.

(b) The rationalizing-deciding self allows an individual to rationalize his actions and be sensible in his deeds concerning the environment. This aspect of self allows people to consider the gains and losses, benefits and disadvantages of their actions.

Transpersonal ecology recommends that we have to advocate a “transpersonal self,” that is a self that prevails over the egocentric desiring-impulsive self and turns itself into a moral and rational self. By putting on the transpersonal self, one becomes mindful of his responsibility to preserve and protect nature … continue reading

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Also Check Out: From Socrates to Mill: An Analysis of Prominent Ethical Theories, also by author Jensen DG. Mañebog

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